Environmental Health in Indian Cities: How Pollution Affects Public Well-Being
Urbanization is increasing rapidly in India. At the same time urbanisation increases, the effects of environmental conditions on an individual’s health are now more apparent than ever before in India’s urban centres. Urban families in India generally begin the day inhaling highly contaminated air filled with small pieces of particulate matter; travelling to work through heavy congested roadways that are caused by emissions from the thousands of vehicles driving on the roadway, and then returning home after having worked in poorly ventilated buildings. Most urban residents also spend considerable amounts of time and money just to get access to guaranteed safe water for drinking and bathing.
Urban populations are also being challenged as summertime temperatures consistently increase. All of these problems represent a single comprehensive problem that negatively impacts an individual’s health, productive capabilities, and ultimate quality of life in India. As a result of this connection between the various elements, it is essential that cities understand all aspects of these issues and work toward finding solutions to resolve them—this is one of the critical problems that future generations of India’s urban population will face.
The Multi-Dimensional Nature of Urban Environmental Health
The environmental health issues faced by Indian cities involve several interconnected domains. While air pollution has historically been the primary focus of environmental health concerns, the majority of Indian cities have among the worst air quality levels in the world. In particular, Delhi’s air quality consistently reaches dangerous levels during winters; however, air quality problems extend far beyond Delhi. Poor air quality also affects Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, and many state capital cities, as well as smaller cities across India.
In addition to the direct health effects, such as respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, and developmental problems for children due to exposure to fine particulate matter (PM 2.5) and nitrogen dioxide, many studies indicate that air pollution results in over a million premature deaths each year in India, according to The Lancet. These mortality-related impacts are only one aspect of air pollution’s impact and extend into how healthcare systems deal with morbidity, the productivity of workers, and educational outcomes for students.
There are numerous health risks associated with poor solid waste management. Since people do not have a place to dispose of their garbage properly, the trash builds up in the streets and creates a breeding ground for infectious disease vectors such as roaches and rats, as well as fire hazards. Open burning of garbage, whether in designated landfills or during improper disposal of household waste, can release gases and ash that contain harmful substances such as dioxins and heavy metals. The leachate created by improperly managed landfills can contaminate groundwater, making it unsafe to drink, and have effects beyond the immediate area.
In addition to the health risks posed by poor solid waste management systems, heat stress is becoming a major public health threat due to climate change and urban sprawl. Many cities have large amounts of concrete, little vegetation, and high population densities that trap and heat up the environment. As a result, temperatures are much higher in cities than in the surrounding area. Heat stress can kill individuals directly in extreme heat events and contributes to the long-term health risks caused by repeated heat exposure, which disproportionately affects outdoor workers, senior citizens, and people living in poorly constructed housing.
Understanding the Root Causes
It is important to understand the broad systemic origins of the systemic issues affecting India when identifying solutions to its environmental problems. The environmental challenges facing India are a result of various structural factors, such as the economic development model, infrastructure deficits, governance limitations, and policy choices, rather than solely individual behaviour. Rapid Urbanisation, coupled with insufficient infrastructure investment, will create conditions whereby ecosystems cannot accommodate as much growth as the population or the rate of Urbanisation.
When cities expand at greater rates than the level of Wastewater Treatment capability, sewage will enter your waterways. When vehicles outnumber mass transit systems, you will experience congestion and increased emissions. And if construction outpaces solid waste management capacity, garbage will accumulate in landfills.
The present-day energy systems operating primarily on fossil fuel sources for electricity production, industrial activity (processes), and transportation create emissions that negatively impact air quality. Although India has invested heavily in renewable energy sources, coal remains the dominant source of electricity production, while petroleum products continue to dominate the transportation market.
Transitioning away from fossil fuel dependence will require time, investment, and technological advancement. Similarly, while many Industrial activities contribute to India’s economic growth, many of those activities are creating negative environmental effects due to a lack of regulation or inadequate enforcement of existing regulations. As small-scale Industries typically do not have the financial resources necessary to purchase pollution control equipment, many large-scale operations are willing to violate existing environmental regulations in order to reduce costs, particularly when existing enforcement mechanisms are weak.
Construction activities contribute substantially to urban air pollution through dust generation and equipment emissions. With India needing to build 70% of its 2047 urban infrastructure, construction activity will remain intensive for decades. Managing its environmental impacts while maintaining development momentum requires innovation in both construction practices and regulatory approaches.
Agricultural burning in regions surrounding cities, farmers clearing fields by burning crop residue, creates seasonal air quality crises, particularly in northern India. While farmers have rational economic reasons for burning (it’s the fastest, cheapest field-clearing method), the practice creates severe pollution episodes affecting millions of urban residents.
Solutions Emerging from Innovation and Policy
Despite challenges’ severity, environmental problems in India are generating innovative solutions across technological, institutional, and community-based domains. These interventions demonstrate that transformation is possible when innovation meets commitment.
Air Quality Innovations
Startups like Panjurli Labs develop large-scale air filtration systems targeting pollution at source, industrial emissions, vehicular exhaust, and construction dust. Rather than small residential purifiers, these systems can be deployed in public spaces like metro stations, hospitals, and schools, protecting populations during high-exposure periods.
MedCuore combines IoT-enabled air quality monitoring with advanced purification for indoor environments. Real-time data enables responsive interventions, adjusting ventilation, activating filtration systems, or alerting occupants when outdoor air quality makes opening windows hazardous. Such systems prove particularly valuable for vulnerable populations like children, elderly individuals, and those with respiratory conditions.
Electric vehicle adoption, while still limited, accelerates as charging infrastructure expands and vehicle options diversify. Startups like Accelero Vehicles develop affordable electric alternatives for commercial applications, convert pushcarts for waste collectors, and delivery vehicles for urban logistics. Such innovations address emissions while improving livelihoods for working-class operators.
Policy interventions, including emission standards for vehicles and industries, incentives for cleaner technologies, and penalties for violations, create regulatory pressure complementing technological solutions. Cities like Delhi implementing odd-even vehicle schemes during high-pollution periods demonstrate a willingness to experiment with demand management approaches.
Water Quality and Sanitation Advances
Innovations in wastewater treatment enable more efficient, sustainable approaches. Lambert Water’s electrochemical systems reduce chemical usage by 60% while achieving high treatment standards. Tellus Habitat’s modular systems enable decentralized treatment, processing wastewater near generation points, and enabling reuse for non-potable applications.
Solinas’s AI-powered pipeline monitoring detects leaks and contamination events in real-time, enabling rapid response before widespread exposure occurs. Such technologies transform reactive systems, discovering problems through citizen complaints, into proactive ones that identify and address issues before significant health impacts.
Community-based water quality testing programs, often conducted by NGOs in partnership with local health departments, increase surveillance of contamination events. Citizen science approaches engaging residents in monitoring create both early warning systems and environmental awareness.
Waste Management Transformations
Startups developing solutions for construction waste demonstrate circular economy principles. Angirus manufactures bricks from plastic and construction waste, diverting materials from landfills while creating superior building products. RecycleX develops concrete from industrial byproducts, eliminating cement and reducing carbon footprint by 80%. Such innovations address both waste management and material sustainability simultaneously.
Waste-picker cooperatives like SWaCH in Pune formalize informal waste collection networks, improving working conditions while enhancing recycling rates. These models demonstrate how environmental problems in India can be addressed through social innovation rather than purely technological approaches.
Composting programs for organic waste, whether at the household, community, or municipal levels, divert substantial waste streams from landfills while producing valuable soil amendments. When combined with segregation at source, such programs dramatically reduce landfill requirements and associated environmental impacts.
Urban Heat Mitigation
Cool roof programs, installing reflective coatings on buildings, reduce heat absorption and indoor temperatures, lowering energy requirements for cooling while mitigating urban heat island effects. When scaled across neighborhoods, cool roofs can reduce ambient temperatures significantly.
Green infrastructure, urban forests, parks, street trees, green roofs, provides multiple benefits: reducing heat through evapotranspiration and shade, improving air quality through particulate capture and oxygen generation, managing stormwater, and enhancing mental health through nature access.
Heat action plans developed by cities like Ahmedabad establish protocols for extreme heat events: early warning systems alerting vulnerable populations, cooling centers providing refuge, adjusted work schedules for outdoor laborers, and healthcare system preparedness. Such plans demonstrate how governance innovation addresses environmental health risks even before comprehensive infrastructure solutions emerge.
The Integration Imperative
Addressing environmental problems in India requires recognizing interconnections between air, water, waste, heat, and broader urban systems. Solutions targeting single dimensions in isolation often prove insufficient or create unintended consequences elsewhere.
Consider electric vehicles: they reduce local air pollution but depend on electricity generation that may produce emissions elsewhere. Truly sustainable solutions require clean energy sources powering clean transportation. Similarly, wastewater treatment produces sludge requiring disposal; sustainable systems must address the entire waste stream rather than shifting problems between media.
Integrated approaches demand cross-sectoral coordination. Urban planning determines building density and green space allocation, affecting heat and air quality. Transportation planning influences emissions and public exposure. Energy policy shapes pollution profiles. Public health systems must coordinate with environmental monitoring to protect vulnerable populations. Such coordination requires institutional structures often absent in fragmented governance systems.
Building Health-Centered Cities
The vision for India’s urban future must place environmental health centrally in planning and development decisions. This means evaluating infrastructure investments not just for economic efficiency but for health outcomes. It means prioritizing public transit and non-motorized transport over private vehicle accommodation. It means preserving and creating green spaces as essential infrastructure rather than discretionary amenities. It means building water and sanitation systems, ensuring universal access to safe services.
Most fundamentally, it requires recognizing that environmental quality isn’t separate from development but essential to it. Cities where residents suffer from pollution-related diseases, where children’s cognitive development is impaired by air quality,and where water contamination creates healthcare burdens, these cities cannot achieve their economic or social potential regardless of other investments.
The environmental problems in India and solutions emerging to address them will shape not just environmental outcomes but the fundamental livability and sustainability of Indian cities. As India builds the majority of its 2047 urban infrastructure in the coming decades, ensuring this infrastructure enhances rather than degrades environmental health represents one of the most consequential choices the nation will make.